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Foreign relations of Norway

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The foreign relations of Norway are based on the country's membership in NATO and within the workings of the United Nations (UN). Additionally, despite not being a member of the European Union (EU), Norway takes a part in the integration of EU through its membership in the European Economic Area. Norway's foreign ministry includes both the minister of foreign affairs and minister of international development.

History

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Further information: History of Norway

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was established on the same day that Norway declared the dissolution of the union with Sweden: June 7, 1905. Although diplomats could not present credentials to foreign governments until the Swedish king formally renounced his right to the Norwegian throne, a number of unofficial representatives worked on the provisional government's behalf until the first Norwegian ambassador, Hjalmar Christian Hauge, sought accreditation by the United States Secretary of State Elihu Root on November 6, 1905.

The initial purposes of the newly formed Foreign Ministry were to represent Norway's interests through diplomatic channels, and to provide consular services for Norwegian shipping and commerce overseas. In 1906, the Storting decided to establish six embassies in Europe, with two more in the Americas: one in the United States and one in Argentina. 20 consular offices were also opened.

During World War I, the foreign ministry was confronted with unprecedented challenges in maintaining neutrality for Norway, in particular in order to protect its merchant fleet.

In 1922, the ministry was consolidated and reorganised to ensure fuller cooperation between the diplomatic and consular branches. The reorganization included the formation of a designated career path for diplomats that included completion of a university entrance examination and professional experience from international trade. The economic hardship of the times forced austerity measures at the ministry for the next several years.

When Norway was invaded by Nazi Germany in 1940, the government fled to the United Kingdom and reconstituted in exile in Bracknell, outside London. Kingston House in London was later used. The government moved back to Norway following the peace in 1945.

After the end of World War II, Norway was a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the United Nations, the latter having Norwegian Trygve Lie as inaugural Secretary-General. Norway was also part of the first slate of non-permanent members to the United Nations Security Council.[1]

Elements of policy

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Since the end of the Cold War, Norway has developed a model to foreign policy known as the "Norwegian model," the goal of which is to contribute to peace and stability through coordinated response among governmental and non-governmental Norwegian organizations; acting as an honest broker in international conflicts; an informal network of Norwegian individuals with access and credibility among parties; and the willingness to take the long view in international issues.

The post-war foreign policy of Norway can be described along four dimensions:

Strategic alliances

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Norway's strategic importance for waging war in the North Atlantic became important in the failed neutrality policy of World War II. Norway became a founding member of NATO in order to ally itself with countries that shared its democratic values. Both through diplomatic and military cooperation, Norway has played a visible role in the formation and operations of NATO. It allowed a limited number of military bases and exercises to be based in its territories, which caused some controversy when NATO decided to put forward bases in Northern Norway in preparation for a conflict with the Soviet Union.[citation needed]

International cooperation

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Norway supports international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of disputes, recognizing the need for maintaining a strong national defence through collective security. Accordingly, the cornerstones of Norwegian policy are active membership in NATO and support for the United Nations and its specialized agencies. Norway also pursues a policy of economic, social, and cultural cooperation with other Nordic countries—Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland—through the Nordic Council. Its relations with Iceland are very close due to the cultural bond the two nations share. Norway ended a 2-year term on the UN Security Council in January 2003, and chaired the Iraq Sanctions Committee.

Norway, along with Iceland and the Faroe Islands, is not a member of the European Union, all three are members of the European Economic Area[clarify].[2] Membership of the EU has been proposed within Norway, and referendums over Norwegian membership were held in 1972 and 1994.[3] Popular opinion was split between rural and urban areas. See Norway and the European Union. The present government is not planning to raise the possibility for future membership.

Norway also has a history of co-operation and friendship with the United Kingdom and Scotland, due to their shared cultural heritage since Viking times. The Vikings conquered areas including the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland for several hundred years. Norway is only 300 kilometres (159 Nautical miles) east of Unst, the northernmost island of Shetland. The Norwegian embassy to the United Kingdom is located in London, and Norway also maintains a Consulate General in Edinburgh. A Norway Spruce is given by the city of Oslo and presented to London as a Christmas tree for display in Trafalgar Square as a token of gratitude for the UK's support during World War II. King Haakon, his son Crown Prince Olav and the country's government lived in exile in London throughout the war. As part of the tradition, the Lord Mayor of Westminster visits Oslo in the late autumn to take part in the felling of the tree, and the Mayor of Oslo then goes to London to light the tree at the Christmas ceremony.

On 25 April 2022, Norwegian foreign minister visited Bangladesh as part of her two-day trip in order to broaden economic partnership through trade, investment and maritime sector cooperation.[4]

International mediation and nation building

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Norway has played an active role as a third party mediator in a number of international conflicts. The late foreign minister Johan Jørgen Holst was instrumental in forging the Oslo Accords between Israel and the PLO. Thorvald Stoltenberg was part of the unsuccessful mediation team in seeking an end to the war in Bosnia. Norway has contributed both mediation services and financial assistance in Guatemala.

As of 2005, Norwegian diplomats are acting as mediators in Sudan, Bosnia, Sri Lanka, and Colombia. Some of those countries accuse Norway of supporting and propping up separatist groups. Israel is often bitter with harsh criticisms from Norwegian politicians. The spat was at its highest when finance minister Kristin Halvorsen supported boycott of Israeli goods.[5] in early 2006. Finance ministry spokesman, Runar Malkenes, told BBC News that "there are no moves to push for a boycott of Israeli goods" at government level.[6] Eritrea has been actively supported by Norway during its liberation from Ethiopia.[7] As of recent, Ethiopia expelled six Norwegian diplomats due to Norway's alleged support to 'Terrorist group and Eritrea'.[8] Norway retaliated by cutting aid to Ethiopia.

After the Al-Qaeda attack on the United States on September 11, 2001, NATO launched a military invasion to overthrow Al-Qaeda and its Taliban sponsors. Norway was one of 51 donors providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country. Norway had charge of Faryab Province. The Norwegian-led Provincial Reconstruction Team had the mission of effecting security, good governance and economic development, 2005–2012. But the results were dubious and frustration continued until the U.S. and all other countries finally decided to withdraw by 2021. [9]

International disputes

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Territorial claims in Antarctica (Queen Maud Land and Peter I Island) are only recognized by Australia, France, New Zealand and the United Kingdom.

Status-seeking

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A number of scholars have argued that Norway has through its foreign policy engaged in status-seeking.[10][11] Through an activist foreign policy, Norway has sought to elevate its standing among the international system's small powers and middle powers, and earn recognition from the great powers.[10][11]

Diplomatic relations

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List of countries which Norway maintains diplomatic relations with:

# Country Date[12]
1  United States 30 October 1905
2  Russia 31 October 1905
3  France 5 November 1905
4  United Kingdom 6 November 1905
5  Denmark 7 November 1905
6  Japan 7 November 1905
7  Germany 9 November 1905
8  Belgium 14 November 1905
9  Sweden 18 November 1905
10  Spain 26 November 1905
11  Thailand 30 November 1905
12  Netherlands 4 December 1905
13  Turkey 31 December 1905
14   Switzerland 22 January 1906
15  Portugal 17 March 1906
16  Italy 22 March 1906
17  Austria 27 March 1906
18  Argentina 28 March 1906
19  Paraguay 2 April 1906
20  Uruguay 3 April 1906
21  Mexico 9 April 1906
22  Cuba 20 June 1906
23  China 13 July 1906
24  Bulgaria 20 August 1906
25  Brazil 11 May 1908
26  Iran 14 October 1908
27  Serbia 9 March 1917
28  Romania 14 May 1917
29  Finland 2 March 1918
30  Greece 25 May 1918
31  Chile 9 June 1919
32  Poland 4 July 1919
33  Hungary 12 February 1920
34  Czech Republic 12 January 1921
35  Peru 3 August 1923
36  Venezuela 4 October 1929
37  Luxembourg 15 April 1931
38  Colombia 6 September 1935
39  Egypt 25 April 1936
40  Ecuador 22 October 1936
41  Bolivia 25 February 1937
42  El Salvador 27 April 1939
43  Guatemala 28 April 1939
44  Costa Rica 2 May 1939
45  Iceland 29 August 1940
46  Canada 24 January 1942
47  Dominican Republic 16 October 1943
48  Haiti 28 October 1943
49  Ethiopia 28 April 1945
50  South Africa 16 June 1946
51  Iraq 28 September 1946
52  Australia 23 June 1947
53  Honduras 3 July 1947
54  Nicaragua 5 July 1947
55  India 15 August 1947
56  Philippines 2 March 1948
57  Panama 21 July 1948
58  Lebanon 10 August 1948
59  Syria 11 August 1948
60  Pakistan 18 December 1948
61  Indonesia 25 January 1950
62  Ireland 17 February 1950
63  Israel 19 July 1950
64  Sri Lanka 13 October 1950
65  Myanmar 18 May 1956
66  Sudan 31 May 1956
67  Tunisia 29 August 1958
68  Morocco 30 August 1958
69  South Korea 22 March 1959
70  Nigeria 1 October 1960
71  Madagascar 27 October 1960
72  Senegal 2 December 1960
73  Yemen 23 March 1961
74  Saudi Arabia 8 May 1961
75  Guinea 21 July 1961
76  Ivory Coast 27 September 1962
77  Algeria 27 October 1962
78  Cyprus 22 March 1963
79  Afghanistan 3 January 1964
80  Niger 24 January 1964
81  Kenya 22 February 1964
82  Uganda 21 July 1964
83  Benin 25 September 1964
84  Tanzania 28 September 1964
85  Zambia 2 February 1965
86  Liberia 17 February 1965
87  Malawi 9 March 1965
88  Ghana 19 May 1965
89  Cameroon 15 June 1965
90  Gabon 28 September 1965
91  Kuwait 30 June 1965
92  Libya 20 July 1966
93  Burundi 1966
94  Republic of the Congo 23 May 1967
95  Botswana 30 November 1967
96  Malaysia 8 March 1968
97  Mongolia 11 May 1968
98  Jordan 7 January 1969
99  Malta 11 February 1969
100  Singapore 7 March 1969
101  Democratic Republic of the Congo 27 September 1969
102  New Zealand 10 October 1969
103  Central African Republic 16 May 1970
104  Sierra Leone 20 July 1970
105  Rwanda 30 January 1971
106  Somalia 30 March 1971
107  Albania 29 May 1971
108  Trinidad and Tobago 19 November 1971
109  Vietnam 25 November 1971
110  Togo 10 January 1972
111  Bangladesh 14 April 1972
112    Nepal 26 January 1973
113  Mauritius 30 January 1973
114  Qatar 9 June 1973
115  North Korea 22 June 1973
116  United Arab Emirates 4 July 1973
117  Bahrain 15 July 1973
118  Barbados 24 January 1975
119  Guinea-Bissau 7 April 1975
120  Mozambique 25 June 1975
121  Lesotho 8 May 1976
122  Papua New Guinea 19 August 1976
123  Cambodia 18 November 1976
124  Fiji 18 January 1977[13]
125  Suriname 8 February 1977
126  Cape Verde 9 May 1977
127  Mali 17 June 1977
128  Jamaica 7 October 1977
129  Angola 31 October 1977
130  Guyana 2 August 1979
131  Burkina Faso 21 September 1979
132  Oman 15 April 1980
133  Zimbabwe 18 April 1980
134  Solomon Islands 18 September 1980
—  Holy See 2 August 1982
135  Gambia 8 February 1983
136  Mauritania 6 December 1983
137  Maldives 26 March 1984
138  Belize 12 July 1984[14]
139  Brunei 12 October 1984
140  Eswatini 11 December 1984
141  Seychelles 1 February 1985[15]
142  Antigua and Barbuda 14 October 1985[16]
143  Bhutan 5 November 1985[17]
144  Tonga 30 August 1988
145  Saint Lucia 1990[18]
146  Namibia 21 March 1990
—  Cook Islands 18 July 1991
147  Estonia 27 August 1991
148  Latvia 27 August 1991
149  Lithuania 27 August 1991
150  Bahamas 11 November 1991
151  Laos 12 November 1991
152  Belarus 4 February 1992
153  Ukraine 5 February 1992
154  Slovenia 18 February 1992
155  Croatia 20 February 1992
156  Moldova 3 June 1992
157  Armenia 5 June 1992
158  Azerbaijan 5 June 1992
159  Georgia 5 June 1992
160  Kazakhstan 5 June 1992
161  Turkmenistan 8 June 1992
162  Tajikistan 10 June 1992
163  Uzbekistan 10 June 1992
164  Kyrgyzstan 26 June 1992
165  Saint Kitts and Nevis 15 October 1992
166  Marshall Islands 16 October 1992[19]
167  Slovakia 1 January 1993
168  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 19 February 1993[20]
169  Bosnia and Herzegovina 12 December 1993[21]
170  North Macedonia 20 December 1993
171  Liechtenstein 1993[22]
172  Eritrea 14 March 1994[23]
173  Andorra 15 November 1995[24]
174  Chad 13 November 1995
175  San Marino 11 December 1996[25]
176  Samoa 1999[26]
177  Grenada 26 April 2000[19]
178  Nauru 9 August 2000[27]
179  Dominica 26 March 2001[28]
180  East Timor 20 May 2002[29]
181  Djibouti 5 February 2003[30]
182  Montenegro 21 June 2006[31]
183  Equatorial Guinea 30 March 2007[32]
—  Kosovo 25 October 2008[33]
184  Tuvalu 8 May 2010[34]
185  Monaco 16 November 2010[35]
186  South Sudan 9 July 2011[36]
187  Palau 31 May 2017[37]
188  Federated States of Micronesia 12 April 2018[38]
189  Vanuatu 28 May 2018[39]
190  São Tomé and Príncipe 25 January 2019[40]
191  Comoros 28 June 2019[41]
192  Kiribati 17 August 2019[42]
—  State of Palestine 28 May 2024[43]

Multilateral

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Organization Formal Relations Began Notes
 European Union See Norway–European Union relations
 NATO See Norway–NATO relations

Africa

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Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Kenya See Kenya–Norway relations
  • Norway has an embassy in Nairobi.
  • Kenya has an embassy in Oslo.
 Sudan See Norway–Sudan relations
  • Norway has an embassy in Khartoum.
  • Sudan has an embassy in Oslo.

Americas

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Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Belize

Since 2011, Belize and Norway have an Agreement concerning the exchange of information relating to tax matters they had signed in 2010.[44]

 Brazil See Brazil–Norway relations
 Canada See Canada–Norway relations

Canada has an embassy in Oslo.[46]

 Chile See Chile–Norway relations
  • Norway has an embassy in Santiago.
  • Chile has an embassy in Oslo.
 Mexico 1906 See Mexico–Norway relations
  • Mexico has an embassy in Oslo.
  • Norway has an embassy in Mexico City.
 United States 1905 See Norway–United States relations

Asia

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Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Afghanistan See Afghanistan–Norway relations
 China October 5, 1954 See China–Norway relations
 India 1947 See India–Norway relations
 Indonesia See Indonesia–Norway relations
  • Norway has an embassy in Jakarta.
  • Indonesia has an embassy in Oslo.
 Israel See Israel–Norway relations

Norway was one of the first countries to recognize Israel on February 4, 1949. Both countries established diplomatic relation later that year.

 Malaysia 1957 See Malaysia–Norway relations
  • Norway has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur.
  • Malaysia has an embassy in Stockholm whose consular area also covers Norway.
 Mongolia January 11, 1968 See Mongolia–Norway relations
  • Mongolia is accredited to Norway from its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden.
  • Norway is accredited to Mongolia from its embassy in Beijing, China.
   Nepal January 26, 1973 See Nepal–Norway relations

Diplomatic relations were established on January 26, 1973. Norway established an embassy in Kathmandu in 2000.[56] In 2008, Norwegian Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg and Minister of the Environment and International Development Erik Solheim visited Nepal.[57] In 2009, Prime Minister Prachanda visited Norway.[58] In May 2008, a small bomb exploded outside the Norwegian embassy in Kathmandu. No one was injured.[59][60]

  • Norway has an embassy in Kathmandu.
  • Nepal has an embassy in Oslo.
 Pakistan 1947 See Norway-Pakistan relations
 Palestine

A Palestinian representation in Oslo has had status of "general delegation". In December 2010 during a visit to Norway Palestinian Prime Minister Salam Fayyad announced that this mission would be upgraded to a diplomatic mission. This will take effect early in 2011. With the rank of ambassador its head will have the title "head of the Palestinian mission". Norway thus becomes the fourth European country to take similar steps, following Spain, France and Portugal. The upgrade does not constitute recognition of a Palestinian state by Norway, however.[61]

 Philippines March 2, 1948 See Norway–Philippines relations

Relations between the Philippines and Norway were established on March 2, 1948, the Philippines has an embassy in Oslo while Norway has an embassy in Manila. Norway is also involved in the peace process in the Philippines related to Moro and Communist insurgencies and is also a member country of the International Monitoring Team for the GPH-MILF Peace Process. Norway is also the third country facilitator for the GPH-CPP–NPA–NDF Peace Process. Trade between the Philippines and Norway amounted up to $73 million.[62][63][64]

  • Norway has an embassy in Manila.
  • Philippines has an embassy in Oslo.
 Saudi Arabia See Norway–Saudi Arabia relations
  • Norway has an embassy in Riyadh and consulate-general in Jeddah.
  • Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Oslo.
 South Korea March 2, 1959[65] See Norway-South Korea relations

The establishment of diplomatic relations between Kongeriket Noreg and the Republic of Korea began on March 2, 1959.

 Syria

In March 2012 the Norwegian Foreign Ministry announced that the Norwegian embassy in Damascus will be temporarily closed, mainly due to the deteriorating security situation in the country, however Foreign Minister Jonas Gahr Støre also emphasized the closing being a political signal. One Norwegian diplomat will remain, stationed at the Danish embassy.[69]

 Turkey See Norway–Turkey relations

Europe

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Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Croatia 1992 See Croatia–Norway relations
 Cyprus See Cyprus–Norway relations

Diplomatic relations were established on March 22, 1963.[70] The government in Cyprus considers that "bilateral relations between Cyprus and Norway are excellent in all fields".[71]

Neither country has resident ambassadors. Cyprus is represented in Norway through its embassy in Stockholm, Sweden and 2 honorary consulates, one in Oslo and the second in Kristiansand. Norway is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens, Greece and an honorary consulate in Nicosia.[72] Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.[71]

On August 21, 1951, there was a Consular Convention and an Exchange of Letters relating to establishing diplomatic relations. On May 2, 1951, there was a Convention for the Avoidance of Double Taxation and the Prevention of Fiscal Evasion with respect to Taxes on Income. On May 17, 1962, there was an Exchange of Letters constituting an Agreement on the Abolition of Visa Requirement in Nicosia. On March 5, 1963, there was an Agreement on Commercial Scheduled Air Transport signed in London.[73]

Norway provides direct funding to the Cypriot Government and also to local authorities, NGOs and educational institutions through EEA and Norway Grants.[74] The NGO Fund in Cyprus is co-financed by the European Economic Area (EEA) Financial Mechanism and the Norwegian Financial Mechanism. It was established in 2004.[75] In 2006, Norway increased its commitment to offer a total contribution of 4.66 million euros.[75] In 2007 a delegation from the EEA and Norway Grants went to Cyprus to "monitor the spending of Norwegian funds given to Cyprus as part of the European Economic Area."[76] In 2008 Norwegian Foreign Minister Jonas Gahr Støre traveled to Cyprus to meet President Demetris Christofias. They met to discuss Norway's assistance to the Cypriot village of Salamiou, in Paphos. The Norwegians plan to rebuild an old elementary school in the village. It will then become a Regional Centre for Environmental Education at the cost of €735,000.[77]

The taxation levels in Cyprus are considerably lower than in Norway, and Cyprus has actively courted Norwegians to move to Cyprus.[78] Among the Norwegians who moved to Cyprus is the shipping billionaire John Fredriksen, who was the richest man in Norway.[79][80][81]

In 1996 tax rules in Norway were changed to keep shipping companies competitive and under the Norwegian flag. By 2008 changes to the tonnage tax regime to harmonize them with the European Union forced some companies to register in Cyprus.[82] Norwegian Service rig company Prosafe moved their headquarters to Cyprus.[83]

Several Norwegian retirees also moved to Cyprus; this too is largely to benefit from the lower tax rate on Cyprus and the minimal crime.[84] The Norwegian colony on Cyprus is in Paphos.[84]

 Denmark See Denmark–Norway relations

Both countries have a very long history together, both countries were part of the Kalmar Union between 1397 and 1523. Norway was in Union with Denmark between 1537 and 1814. Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1905, after Norway's independence. Both countries are full members of the Council of the Baltic Sea States, of NATO, and of the Council of Europe. There are around 15,000 Norwegian people living in Denmark and around 20,000 Danish people living in Norway.[87]

 Estonia
 European Union See Norway–European Union relations

Norway is part of the EU market via the European Economic Area and the Schengen Area.

 Finland See Finland–Norway relations
 France 1905 See France–Norway relations
 Germany See Germany–Norway relations
 Greece See Greece–Norway relations
 Hungary 1920
 Iceland See Iceland–Norway relations

In 2007, the two countries signed a defense agreement, covering surveillance and military defense of Icelandic air space and economic zone. It means that Norwegian jet fighters and surveillance aircraft will be patrolling Icelandic air space. It is underlined that the agreement with Norway only covers peacetime. In case of a military conflict it is still NATO and the United States Government that will carry the main responsibility for Iceland's defense.[97] The agreement was signed following the decision to pullout US military from the Keflavík naval air base.[98]

 Ireland
 Kosovo See Kosovo–Norway relations

Norway recognized Kosovo on March 28, 2008.[103] Norway has an embassy in Pristina, while Kosovo has hinted that it will include Norway in the second wave of embassy openings.

 Monaco
  • Norway is accredited to Monaco from its embassy in Paris, France and maintains an honorary consulate in Monaco.[104][105]
  • Monaco maintains an honorary consulate in Oslo.[106]
 Poland See Norway–Poland relations
 Romania April 3, 1917 See Norway–Romania relations
  • Both nations were established formal relations on April 3, 1917.
  • Norway has an embassy in Bucharest.[107]
  • Romania has an embassy in Oslo.[108]
  • Both nations are full members of NATO and of the Council of Europe.
 Russia October 30, 1905 See Norway–Russia relations
 Serbia See Norway–Serbia relations
 Spain See Norway–Spain relations
 Sweden 1905 See Norway-Sweden relations

Both nations established diplomatic relations in 1905, after the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905.

  Switzerland See Norway-Switzerland relations
  • Norway has an embassy in Bern and two consulates-general in Geneva and Zürich.
  • Switzerland has an embassy in Oslo.
 Ukraine 1992 See Norway–Ukraine relations
 United Kingdom 1905 See Norway–United Kingdom relations

Oceania

[edit]
Country Formal Relations Began Notes
 Australia 1905 See Australia–Norway relations

The bilateral countries between Australia and Norway were established diplomatic relations in 1905, following the Norway's independence since 1814.

 New Zealand 1905 See New Zealand–Norway relations

Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1905, after Norway's independence. There are approximately 1,400 Norwegians living in New Zealand and 409 New Zealanders living in Norway.[120]

Reidar Sveaas, director of P&O Maritime Ltd. and honorary consul to Auckland said in 2000 that excellent opportunities existed for New Zealand to trade with the world's second largest oil-producing country, Norway.[121]

New Zealand joined 11 other countries in 2006 in delivering a formal diplomatic protest to the Norwegian Foreign Ministry in Oslo over Norway's plans to increase its whaling activities.[122]

In 2004, New Zealand Prime Minister Helen Clark became as the first Prime Minister to ever visits Norway. She said that both countries see eye-to-eye on almost everything but the commercial harvesting of whales.[123]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Further information: History of Norway § Bibliography
  • Berg, Roald. "Norway’s Foreign Politics during the Union with Sweden, 1814-1905: A Reconsideration." Diplomacy & Statecraft 31.1 (2020): 1-21. online Argues Norwegians did have a voice in foreign affairs.
  • Danielsen, Helge. "Military Assistance, Foreign Policy, and National Security: The Objectives of US Military Assistance to Norway, 1950–1965." Scandinavian Journal of History 45.1 (2020): 71–94.
  • Frankel, Joseph. "Comparing Foreign Policies: The Case of Norway." International Affairs 44.3 (1968): 482–493.
  • German, Robert K. "Norway and the bear: Soviet coercive diplomacy and Norwegian security policy." International Security 7.2 (1982): 55-82 online.
  • Holst, Johan Jørgen, ed. Norwegian Foreign Policy in the 1980s (Oxford UP, 1985).
  • Lucas, Colin. "Great Britain and the Union of Norway and Sweden." Scandinavian Journal of History 15.3-4 (1990): 269–278.
  • Lundestad, Geir. "The United States and Norway, 1905–2006 Allies of a kind: so similar, so different." Journal of Transatlantic Studies 4.2 (2006): 187–209.
  • Lundestad, Geir. "The evolution of Norwegian security policy: Alliance with the West and reassurance in the East." Scandinavian Journal of History 17.2-3 (1992): 227–256.
  • Lundestad, Geir. America, Scandinavia and the Cold War, 1945-1949 (1980),
  • Padelford, Norman J. "Regional cooperation in Scandinavia." International Organization 11.4 (1957): 597–614; relations with Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland, 1920–1955. online
  • Pisarska, Katarzyna. "Peace Diplomacy and the Domestic Dimension of Norwegian Foreign Policy: The Insider's Accounts." Scandinavian Political Studies 38.2 (2015): 198–215.
  • Riste, Olav. "The historical determinants of Norwegian foreign policy." in J. J. Holst, ed. Norwegian Foreign Policy in the 1980s (1985): 12–26.
  • Salmon, Patrick. Scandinavia and the Great Powers 1890-1940 (2002) excerpt
  • Salmon, Patrick. "How to write international history: Reflections on Norsk utenrikspolitikks historie." Diplomacy and Statecraft 9.1 (1998): 208–223.
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